This article has been written by Ms. Jaanvi Keshav, a 4th year student of Himachal Pradesh National Law University, Shimla.

 

Abstract

This article paper examines the evolving role of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in addressing and resolving conflicts that emerged in the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Focusing on the transition period from the Balkans to Ukraine, the article analyzes the UNSC’s responses, interventions, and challenges in managing the complex geopolitical landscape in the post-Soviet space. The study aims to provide insights into the effectiveness and limitations of the UNSC in maintaining international peace and security within the context of post-Soviet conflicts.

Introduction

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had profound implications for international relations, leading to the emergence of independent states and triggering conflicts in regions like the Balkans and Ukraine. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) played a crucial role in addressing these post-Soviet conflicts, characterized by ethnic, territorial, and historical complexities. This research paper focuses on the transition period from the Balkans to Ukraine, aiming to analyze the challenges faced by the UNSC in dealing with these conflicts. The study aims to explore the UNSC’s responses, interventions, and evolving approach to understand its effectiveness and limitations in navigating the complex geopolitical landscape of the post-Soviet space. The methodology involves a comprehensive approach, including a review of scholarly literature, analysis of UNSC resolutions, and consultations with experts in international law and diplomacy. By synthesizing historical context, legal frameworks, and practical outcomes, the research aims to contribute to a nuanced understanding of the UNSC’s role in post-Soviet conflicts and its broader implications for international relations.

Dissolution of Soviet Union And Emergence of Post Soviet Conflict

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the Cold War, resulting in the emergence of 15 independent states. This geopolitical shift from bipolarity to multipolarity led to significant challenges for the newly formed nations, including issues of nation-building, economic transition, and redefining political identities. The breakup revealed ethnic and historical fault lines, giving rise to post-Soviet conflicts across regions such as the Balkans and Ukraine. These conflicts, driven by factors like nationalism and territorial disputes, presented complex challenges for the international community.

The power vacuum left by the Soviet retreat contributed to the emergence of regional actors seeking influence, intensifying conflicts. The post-Soviet space experienced security challenges, including separatist movements, border disputes, and ethnic tensions. Newly independent states asserted their sovereignty, leading to overlapping territorial claims and historical grievances. The United Nations Security Council faced unprecedented challenges in maintaining international peace and security during this period, as it navigated the intricate dynamics of post-Soviet conflicts. The study of this historical context aims to shed light on the complexities and implications for the broader field of international relations.

The Role of the United Nations Security Council

In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the UNSC found itself at the forefront of addressing post-Soviet conflicts. In the Balkans, particularly in Bosnia and Kosovo, the Council played a crucial role in authorizing interventions and establishing peacekeeping missions. Resolutions such as Resolution 713 (1991) and Resolution 1244 (1999) highlighted the Council’s efforts to address humanitarian concerns, enforce ceasefires, and facilitate negotiations for a political settlement.

As post-Soviet conflicts unfolded in Ukraine, particularly in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine, the UNSC faced new challenges. The annexation of Crimea in 2014 prompted swift condemnation from the international community, leading to resolutions such as Resolution 2202 (2015) affirming Ukraine’s territorial integrity. The UNSC engaged in diplomatic efforts, calling for de-escalation, withdrawal of foreign forces, and a peaceful resolution to the conflict. The Council’s actions reflected its commitment to upholding the principles of the UN Charter and international law.

Despite its critical role, the UNSC has faced criticisms and limitations in its approach to post-Soviet conflicts. The use of the veto power by permanent members often led to deadlock and hindered timely responses. Additionally, the balance between respecting state sovereignty and the responsibility to protect (R2P) created tensions in decision-making processes. The UNSC’s effectiveness was further challenged by the changing nature of conflicts, shifting power dynamics, and the emergence of new geopolitical realities.

The Balkans: Kosovo and Bosnia

 

Background

The Balkans conflict of the 1990s emerged from the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, marked by the secession of several republics and ensuing violent conflicts. Contributing factors included historical ethnic tensions, nationalist movements, economic challenges, and the power vacuum following the Cold War. Key events included Slovenia and Croatia declaring independence in 1991, leading to armed conflicts characterized by ethnic tensions. The Bosnian War (1992-1995) involved complex conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina, resulting in ethnic cleansing and the Dayton Agreement’s intervention in 1995. The Kosovo War (1998-1999) saw tensions escalate, with NATO intervention forcing Yugoslav withdrawal and the establishment of UNMIK in Kosovo. Montenegro and Macedonia experienced relative peace during their paths to independence in the 1990s-2000s. The Balkans conflict left a legacy of deep-seated ethnic and political divisions, requiring significant efforts in post-conflict reconstruction, reconciliation, and the establishment of stable political structures.

 

UNSC’S Engagement in The Balkans

Resolution 713 (1991): Recognizing the seriousness of the situation in the Balkans, the UNSC imposed an arms embargo on all parties involved in the conflict. The goal was to prevent the exacerbation of hostilities by restricting the flow of weapons to the warring factions.

Resolution 743 (1992): As the conflict escalated, the UNSC established the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). UNPROFOR’s mandate included implementing the arms embargo, monitoring ceasefires, and providing humanitarian assistance to the affected populations. This marked a significant shift from diplomatic measures to on-the-ground peacekeeping efforts.

Resolution 1244 (1999): In response to the Kosovo conflict, the UNSC authorized the establishment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). This resolution placed Kosovo under the interim administration of the UN and paved the way for determining the region’s final status through negotiation.

 

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) encountered diplomatic challenges in addressing post-Soviet conflicts, with member states holding differing views on the appropriate actions. Enforcement of arms embargoes and achieving ceasefires was complicated by the complex nature of the conflicts and diverse interests involved. The establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) underscored the UNSC’s commitment to holding individuals accountable for war crimes. However, challenges arose in gaining widespread acceptance of the Tribunal’s decisions and translating justice into lasting reconciliation in the region. UNSC interventions aimed at stabilizing situations faced challenges in post-conflict governance and achieving enduring stability. Despite the establishment of interim administrations like UNMIK to provide governance and support reconciliation processes, long-term solutions proved elusive. The complexities of the post-Soviet conflicts posed persistent hurdles to the UNSC’s efforts in diplomatic resolutions, enforcement, and the establishment of lasting stability in the affected regions.

• The Crimea and Eastern Ukraine

 

Background: Annexation of Crimea and Conflict in Eastern Ukraine

In February 2014, following months of protests in Kyiv and the ousting of President Viktor Yanukovych, Russia annexed Crimea. This move was widely condemned by the international community. Russia justified its actions by citing the results of a controversial referendum held in Crimea, in which the majority of participants reportedly voted to join Russia. However, the legitimacy of the referendum has been widely disputed, and many countries consider Crimea to be part of Ukraine. The annexation led to a significant deterioration of relations between Russia and the West. The United States, the European Union, and other nations imposed sanctions on Russia in response to its actions in Crimea.

 

Following the annexation of Crimea, pro-Russian separatist movements emerged in Eastern Ukraine, particularly in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions. The separatists declared independent republics, leading to a conflict with the Ukrainian government. The conflict has been marked by allegations of direct Russian involvement, including the supply of weapons and fighters to the separatist forces. Russia denies direct military involvement, but evidence suggests otherwise. Multiple attempts have been made to reach a peaceful resolution to the conflict through negotiations. The Minsk agreements, brokered by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), outline a roadmap for a ceasefire, withdrawal of heavy weapons, and political solutions. However, the agreements have faced challenges in implementation. The conflict has resulted in a significant humanitarian crisis, with thousands of lives lost, large-scale displacement, and disruptions to daily life for those living in conflict-affected areas. This conflict has resulted in the ongoing war in Ukraine 

 

On 24 February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine in an escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that started in 2014. In the nearly two years since Russia’s full-scale invasion, Ukraine has reclaimed 54 percent of its occupied territory, but Russia still holds 18 percent. Despite Ukraine’s 2023 offensive resulting in minor territorial gains, the frontlines have stabilized for almost a year, with both sides entrenched and breakthroughs becoming challenging. Military casualties have reached an estimated half a million. Russia continues to bombard Ukrainian cities and blockade ports, prompting Ukraine to increase drone attacks on Russian ships and infrastructure. Ukraine has received nearly $350 billion in aid since January 2022, including $77 billion from the United States, but faces concerns about donor fatigue. The conflict has caused nearly 22,000 civilian casualties, with 5.1 million internally displaced and 6.2 million fleeing Ukraine. A total of 17.6 million people require humanitarian assistance.

 

UNSC Resolutions and Actions

• Resolution 2202 (2015): Adopted in response to the annexation of Crimea, this resolution affirmed the UNSC’s commitment to Ukraine’s sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity. It called for the full implementation of the Minsk agreements, which outlined a roadmap for a peaceful resolution to the conflict in Eastern Ukraine. The resolution emphasized the importance of a ceasefire, the withdrawal of heavy weapons, and the facilitation of monitoring by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
• Establishment of the UN Monitoring Mission in Ukraine (SMM): The UNSC supported the deployment of the UN Monitoring Mission in Ukraine to observe and report on the situation in Ukraine, particularly in areas affected by the conflict. The SMM’s role includes monitoring the implementation of the Minsk agreements, documenting violations, and fostering dialogue between conflicting parties.

 

The conflict in Ukraine has exposed profound geopolitical divisions within the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), particularly between Western nations and Russia. These divisions are evident in debates over how events are characterized, assigning responsibility, and formulating appropriate responses. 

 

After Russia exercised its veto power to block a United Nations Security Council resolution that condemned its invasion of  Ukraine and urged the withdrawal of military forces on February 25, 2022, UNSC hasn’t been able to act effectively or aid in the ending of war that has caused deaths of numerous military personnel and civilians. Russia was the sole country on the council to oppose the resolution, highlighting the UN’s limited influence over the world’s most powerful nations. This move has led to increased criticisms of the UN’s inability to take effective action in response to the Ukraine crisis, underscoring the challenges faced by the organization in addressing conflicts involving major global players. This limitation has impeded the imposition of stronger measures against those responsible for actions that violate international law. Humanitarian concerns have emerged as a significant challenge in the Ukraine conflict, leading to population displacement, disruptions in essential services, and worries about the well-being of civilians. The  UNSC has struggled to address these humanitarian aspects effectively, given the constraints imposed by geopolitical realities.

• Challenges and Criticisms Faced by UNSC in Addressing Post Soviet Conflicts

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) encounters significant challenges and criticisms in addressing post-Soviet conflicts:

 

Geopolitical Divisions and Veto Power:

• Geopolitical divisions among the five permanent members (P5) with veto power have resulted in deadlock and an inability to pass resolutions or take decisive actions, particularly when conflicts involve key P5 members or their allies.
• The veto power, meant to prevent major powers from acting against their interests, is criticized for causing paralysis and hindering the UNSC from effectively addressing conflicts and human rights abuses.

Balance between Sovereignty and Responsibility to Protect (R2P):

• The tension between respecting state sovereignty and the responsibility to protect (R2P) poses challenges in decision-making, with some member states cautious about intervening in the internal affairs of sovereign states, even in the face of human rights violations.
• The UNSC faces criticism for perceived reluctance or inconsistency in invoking R2P to prevent or respond to mass atrocities, raising questions about its effectiveness in fulfilling its mandate.

Ineffective Enforcement Mechanisms:

The UNSC relies on member states’ willingness to comply with resolutions. Challenges arise in enforcement due to the lack of a standing UN military force and the need for member states to contribute troops or resources, impacting the effectiveness of enforcement actions.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the post-Soviet conflicts spanning from the Balkans to Ukraine posed significant challenges for the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in maintaining international peace and security. The dissolution of the Soviet Union triggered complex ethnic and territorial tensions, necessitating nuanced diplomatic interventions. This article focused on the UNSC’s responses to conflicts in the Balkans and Ukraine, revealing both successes and limitations in navigating the intricate post-Soviet geopolitical landscape. The UNSC encountered challenges such as geopolitical divisions, the sovereignty-R2P dilemma, and the lack of robust enforcement mechanisms, impacting its ability to ensure enduring stability. As the post-Soviet space evolves, the UNSC must consider reforms to adapt to contemporary security threats and find a balance between sovereignty and intervention. Overcoming geopolitical divisions and enhancing conflict resolution mechanisms are essential for maintaining global peace and security.

 

Refernces

• This article was originally written by Kristyna Foltynova. The link for the same is herein https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html. 
• This article was originally published on BBC News. The link for the same is herein https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17632399.
• This article was originally written by Richard Gowan and Daniel Korski. The link for the same is herein https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep09574.6?seq=1.

• This article was originally published on The Indian Express. The link for the same is herein https://indianexpress.com/article/world/unsc-ukraine-russia-india-abstains-7791774/.
• This article was originally published on BBC News. The link for the same is herein https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60506682.
• This article was originally published on The Global Conflict Tracker. The link for the same is herein https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-ukraine.
• This article was originally written by Jen Kirby and Jonathan Guyer and published on Vox. The link for the same is herein https://www.vox.com/22917719/russia-ukraine-invasion-border-crisis-nato-explained.
• United Nations Security Council. (1991). Resolution 713. S/RES/713. Retrieved from UN Document.
• United Nations Security Council. (1999). Resolution 1244. S/RES/1244. . Retrieved from UN Document.
• United Nations Security Council. (2015). Resolution 2202. S/RES/2202. . Retrieved from UN Document.