This article has been written by Ms. Jaanvi Keshav, a 4th year student of Himachal Pradesh National Law University, Shimla.

Abstract

The United Nations Security Council’s role in addressing Middle East conflicts is a critical global concern. This comprehensive analysis examines the Council’s historical engagements, efficacy of interventions, and challenges encountered while navigating the complex landscape of conflicts in the region. The paper scrutinizes specific instances such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Syrian civil war, Iran-Iraq relations, Yemen crisis, and other relevant conflicts. Assessing the Security Council’s mechanisms—resolutions, peacekeeping, and sanctions—it evaluates their impact within the framework of international law. Furthermore, it explores criticisms regarding geopolitical interests, humanitarian concerns, and the Council’s limitations. The analysis aims to offer actionable insights and recommendations for potential reforms, aiming to enhance the Council’s effectiveness in managing Middle East conflicts and fostering sustainable peace and security.

Introduction

The Middle East stands at the crossroads of civilizations, boasting a rich historical tapestry deeply rooted in ancient cultures and religions. Over time, it has become a focal point for global interests due to its strategic geographical location, vast energy resources, and historical trade routes. The region’s history is marked by various empires, colonial interventions, and conflicts that have shaped its contemporary dynamics. The Middle East is fraught with longstanding conflicts and unresolved issues that have persisted for decades. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict remains one of the most enduring and high-profile disputes, involving issues of territory, statehood, and security for both sides. The Syrian civil war, with its complex web of domestic and international actors, has led to significant humanitarian crises and regional instability. Additionally, tensions between Iran and its neighbors, proxy wars, sectarian tensions, and the rise of extremist groups have added layers of complexity to the region’s challenges. These conflicts have had profound humanitarian consequences, causing mass displacement, loss of lives, and severe disruptions to societies and economies. Moreover, the volatility in the Middle East has reverberating effects globally, impacting energy markets, regional stability, and international security. Despite the complexities and challenges, various international efforts, diplomatic initiatives, and peace processes have been undertaken to resolve conflicts and achieve stability in the Middle East. The Security Council’s involvement in these efforts, through resolutions, peacekeeping missions, and sanctions, reflects the international community’s collective endeavor to bring about peace and security in the region.

The United Nations Security Council, established under Chapter V of the UN Charter, holds the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. Its mandate involves identifying threats to peace, recommending actions or resolutions, deploying peacekeeping forces, and enforcing sanctions or other measures to mitigate conflicts and restore stability. The Security Council consists of fifteen member states, including five permanent members with veto powers (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms. Decisions on substantive matters require nine affirmative votes, including the concurring votes of all five permanent members.

The veto power of the permanent members often shapes the Council’s actions and resolutions. The Council employs various mechanisms to address conflicts, such as issuing resolutions that call for ceasefires, peace negotiations, humanitarian aid, arms embargoes, or sanctions. It also authorizes peacekeeping missions to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and facilitate political transitions in conflict zones. Sanctions, including economic, trade, or arms embargoes, are frequently utilized by the Security Council as tools to pressure parties involved in conflicts to comply with its resolutions. Peacekeeping missions, authorized by the Council, are deployed to conflict zones to help maintain peace and security, albeit with varying degrees of success depending on the situation’s complexity and consent of the involved parties. The Security Council’s decisions and resolutions carry significant weight globally due to its authority under international law.

Historical Overview of the Security Council’s Involvement in the Middle East

The Security Council’s initial involvements in the Middle East included resolutions addressing the aftermath of World War II, such as the partition plan for Palestine (UNSC Resolution 181) in 1947. The 1956 Suez Crisis marked a significant moment, highlighting the Council’s attempts to resolve conflicts involving major powers, Britain, France, Israel, Egypt, and the Soviet Union. Throughout the decades, the Security Council has issued numerous resolutions concerning the Middle East. Resolutions like UNSC 242 (1967) and UNSC 338 (1973) laid the foundation for peace negotiations after the Arab-Israeli Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War. These resolutions called for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied territories and emphasized the need for a just and lasting peace. Assessing the impact of Security Council resolutions in the Middle East is multifaceted. While some resolutions led to peace agreements, like the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty following the Camp David Accords (1978), others faced challenges in implementation due to conflicting interests, lack of compliance, or changes in regional dynamics. For instance, the Oslo Accords in the 1990s aimed to establish a framework for Israeli-Palestinian peace but faced obstacles in implementation. The historical overview also highlights ongoing challenges faced by the Security Council in the Middle East, including the persistence of conflicts, shifting geopolitical alliances, emergence of non-state actors, and the humanitarian crises resulting from prolonged conflicts, notably seen in Syria and Yemen.

Security Council’s Response to Specific Middle Eastern Conflict

• Israeli Palestinian conflict

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a decades-long dispute between Israelis and Palestinians over land, borders, and national identity. It originated from the establishment of Israel in 1948, which led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians. The key issues revolve around territorial disputes, with Palestinians seeking statehood in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem—areas occupied by Israel since the 1967 Six-Day War. However, Israel’s construction of settlements in these territories complicates the prospects for a viable Palestinian state. Additionally, both sides claim Jerusalem as their capital, intensifying tensions. The conflict also grapples with the plight of Palestinian refugees who seek the right to return to their ancestral lands. Despite numerous peace talks and efforts, including the Oslo Accords in the 1990s, aimed at a two-state solution, challenges such as security concerns, settlement expansions, internal divisions among Palestinians, and differing interpretations of peace agreements have hindered progress. The conflict’s unresolved nature continues to fuel deep-seated animosities, periodic outbreaks of violence, and pervasive tensions in the region, impacting the lives of Israelis and Palestinians alike and has now led to the Israel Hamas war. The Security Council has issued numerous resolutions addressing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Resolutions like UNSC 242 (1967) and UNSC 338 (1973) called for Israel’s withdrawal from occupied territories and negotiations for a just and lasting peace. Various initiatives aimed at establishing a two-state solution have been proposed, but implementation has faced hurdles due to issues such as borders, settlements, and the status of Jerusalem. The Council authorized peacekeeping missions like the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) to monitor ceasefires and facilitate peace talks between Israel and its neighbors. However, the continuation of conflicts and territorial disputes has limited the effectiveness of these missions in achieving lasting peace. The conflict is ongoing till date and has led to the current war between Israel and Hamas.

• Syrian Civil War

The Syrian civil war, which began in 2011, emerged from a complex set of factors including discontent with the Assad regime, demands for political reform, and regional tensions. What initially started as peaceful protests against the government quickly escalated into a full-scale conflict. Various groups, including rebel factions, jihadist forces, and Kurdish militias, sought to challenge the authoritarian rule of President Bashar al-Assad. The conflict became a multifaceted battleground involving regional and international actors, each supporting different factions. The humanitarian toll has been devastating, with millions displaced, widespread destruction, and numerous human rights violations. Efforts to resolve the conflict, including diplomatic initiatives and peace talks, have faced significant challenges due to diverging interests among stakeholders and the complexity of the conflict’s dynamics. The Syrian civil war remains ongoing, resulting in a catastrophic humanitarian crisis, regional instability, and immense suffering for the Syrian population. Throughout the Syrian civil war, the Security Council issued several resolutions focused on humanitarian aid delivery and ceasefire calls to alleviate the suffering of civilians. Resolutions 2139 (2014) and 2165 (2014) aimed to facilitate humanitarian access, though their effectiveness was constrained by challenges on the ground. The Council supported diplomatic initiatives such as the Geneva peace talks and efforts by the UN Special Envoy for Syria. However, diverging interests among major powers and the involvement of multiple actors complicated efforts to reach a political resolution.

• Iran- Iraq Relations

The United Nations Security Council played a role in attempting to mediate the Iran-Iraq conflict that lasted from 1980 to 1988. The conflict stemmed from a combination of historical border disputes, religious tensions, and power struggles in the region. Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran in 1980, seeking to take advantage of Iran’s post-revolutionary instability and to control disputed territories, including the Shatt al-Arab waterway. The war resulted in a prolonged and brutal conflict that caused massive casualties and economic devastation in both countries. The Security Council intervened by attempting to broker ceasefires and peace negotiations between Iran and Iraq during the conflict. Several resolutions were passed urging an end to hostilities and calling for a ceasefire, though achieving lasting peace proved challenging due to deep-seated animosities, territorial disputes, and ideological differences between the two nations. Despite numerous efforts, the conflict ultimately ended in 1988 without a clear winner, leaving both countries economically and socially scarred and with unresolved grievances.

• Yemen Crisis

The Yemen crisis, which escalated in 2014, saw the United Nations Security Council actively engaged in addressing the escalating conflict. The crisis began with a power struggle between the internationally recognized government led by President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi and Houthi rebels, who seized control of the capital, Sana’a, and other key areas. Saudi Arabia and a coalition of Arab states intervened militarily in support of President Hadi’s government in March 2015, leading to a protracted conflict that exacerbated humanitarian suffering. The Security Council responded to the Yemen crisis by issuing several resolutions aimed at ending hostilities, securing humanitarian access, and supporting peace negotiations. Resolutions 2216 (2015) and 2342 (2017) called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of Houthi forces from seized territories, and the resumption of political dialogue. Additionally, the Council authorized the establishment of a UN verification and inspection mechanism to oversee the implementation of an arms embargo. However, the conflict persisted, leading to a dire humanitarian situation marked by widespread famine, disease outbreaks, and the world’s largest humanitarian crisis. Challenges in implementing ceasefire agreements, ongoing violence, and regional geopolitical complexities have hindered the Security Council’s efforts to bring about a sustainable resolution to the Yemeni conflict.

Analysis of Security Council Mechanisms and Actions

The analysis of the United Nations Security Council’s mechanisms and actions in addressing conflicts in the Middle East encompasses evaluating its resolutions, peacekeeping missions, use of sanctions, and adherence to international law. The Council’s resolutions serve as critical instruments to address conflicts, calling for ceasefires, humanitarian aid, and political negotiations. However, their effectiveness often depends on the compliance and commitment of involved parties, with challenges arising from non-compliance, conflicting interests of member states, and limitations in enforcement mechanisms. Peacekeeping missions authorized by the Security Council play a crucial role in monitoring ceasefires, protecting civilians, and facilitating political transitions. However, their effectiveness is contingent upon the consent of conflicting parties and adequate resources. In some instances, peacekeeping efforts have faced challenges due to evolving conflict dynamics, limited mandates, and security risks faced by deployed personnel.  The Council’s use of sanctions as a tool to pressure parties into compliance with resolutions has been contentious. While sanctions aim to influence behavior, they can also exacerbate humanitarian crises and affect civilian populations. The Council’s efforts to strike a balance between achieving its objectives and mitigating adverse impacts on civilians remain a topic of scrutiny. Furthermore, the Council’s actions are framed within the boundaries of international law. Assessing the legal implications of resolutions and actions involves scrutinizing adherence to principles such as sovereignty, human rights, and humanitarian law. However, geopolitical interests, including the veto power of permanent members, have sometimes hindered the Council’s ability to effectively uphold international law in resolving conflicts.

Challenges and Criticisms:

1. The veto power held by the five permanent members often leads to gridlock when their interests conflict, hampering swift and decisive actions. This dynamic has been particularly evident in Middle Eastern conflicts where major powers have vested interests, leading to criticisms of selectivity in interventions and the Council’s inability to act impartially.
2. Conflicts in the Middle East have resulted in severe humanitarian crises, with civilians bearing the brunt of the suffering. Critics argue that the Council’s actions have sometimes fallen short in adequately protecting civilians, addressing humanitarian needs, and ensuring compliance with international humanitarian law.

1. The involvement of non-state actors, including extremist groups and proxy forces, has complicated conflict resolution efforts. Terrorist organizations operating in the region have posed challenges to the Council’s ability to stabilize situations and maintain peace.

1. The Council’s interventions in the Middle East have often faced resistance from regional actors, raising sovereignty concerns and highlighting challenges related to the Council’s legitimacy in addressing internal conflicts within sovereign states.

Prospects for Improvement:

1. Efforts to reform the Council’s decision-making process could mitigate gridlock caused by veto powers. Expanding the number of permanent members or limiting veto power in certain situations might enhance the Council’s ability to act more decisively.
2. Improving conflict resolution mechanisms by enhancing dialogue facilitation, supporting mediation efforts, and encouraging inclusive peace processes could increase the likelihood of sustainable agreements.
3. Collaborating more closely with regional organizations and actors, such as the Arab League, could provide better insights into regional dynamics and bolster efforts for conflict resolution.
4. Ensuring accountability for violations of international law and human rights abuses in conflicts is crucial. Establishing mechanisms for holding perpetrators accountable could deter future violations and contribute to lasting peace.

Conclusion

In the culmination of this extensive analysis, it’s evident that the United Nations Security Council’s role in Middle Eastern conflicts is characterized by a nuanced blend of successes and persistent challenges. Throughout, the Council’s resolutions, peacekeeping efforts, and sanctions aimed at addressing conflicts in the region have showcased both impactful interventions and limitations in their implementation. The findings underscore the intricate interplay of geopolitical interests, the contentious nature of veto powers, and the Council’s struggle to balance humanitarian imperatives with political considerations. Critically, the ongoing humanitarian crises, the multifaceted involvement of non-state actors, and the intricate web of regional dynamics continue to pose formidable obstacles to the Council’s quest for sustainable peace and stability in the Middle East. These complexities demand continued reflection and innovative approaches to bolster the Council’s effectiveness, emphasizing the imperative of reform, collaboration, and a renewed commitment to addressing the region’s enduring challenges.

References

• This article was originally written by Lina Abu Habib and Zeina Abdel Khalik. The link for the same is herein. https://arabstates.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Field%20Office%20Arab%20States/Attachments/2021/07/WPS-Policy%20Paper-EN.pdf

1. United Nations Security Council. (1967). Resolution 242. Retrieved from https://undocs.org/S/RES/242(1967)
2. United Nations Security Council. (1973). Resolution 338. Retrieved from https://undocs.org/S/RES/338(1973)
3. United Nations Security Council. (2014). Resolution 2139. Retrieved from https://undocs.org/S/RES/2139(2014)
4. United Nations Security Council. (2014). Resolution 2165. Retrieved from https://undocs.org/S/RES/2165(2014)
5. This article was originally written by Mohammed Hadad. The link for the same is herein. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/9/yemens-war-explained-in-maps-and-charts-interactive
6. This article was originally written by Zachary Laub. The link for the same is herein. https://www.cfr.org/article/syrias-civil-war
7. https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/iran-iraq-war
8. https://world101.cfr.org/understanding-international-system/conflict/israeli-palestinian-conflict-timeline
9. This article was originally written by David Schenker. The link for the same is herein. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/regional-security-cooperation-partnerships-middle-east