This article has been written by Ms. Krutika Suryakant Kawade, a 4th year student of Modern Law College, Pune.
ABSTRACT:
South Sudan gained independence from Sudan in 2011 after decades of civil war. However, internal ethnic and political divisions led to the outbreak of civil war in South Sudan in 2013. This article examines the efforts of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) to keep peace amidst continued civil strife and inter-ethnic violence in the fledgling nation. It provides an overview of the origins and key actors in the conflict, analyses the challenges faced by UNMISS peacekeepers, and evaluates the successes and failures of the peacekeeping mission. The research finds that while UNMISS has saved lives through its protection of civilian’s mandate, its efforts have been constrained by continued fighting, restricted access, and attacks on UN personnel. A lasting peace in South Sudan remains elusive despite international engagement. The article concludes with policy recommendations for improving the effectiveness of UNMISS and fostering long-term stability in South Sudan.
INTRODUCTION:
South Sudan gained independence in 2011 after decades of civil war between southern rebels and the northern government in Khartoum. However, tensions among South Sudan’s ethnic groups and political factions quickly rose to the surface. In 2013, civil war broke out between forces loyal to President Salva Kiir and those loyal to former Vice President Riek Machar, plunging the country back into deadly conflict. The civil war has fractured the new nation along ethnic lines, with Kiir’s Dinka ethnic group fighting Machar’s Nuer group. Thousands have been killed, and over 4 million displaced from their homes (Madamombe, 2022).
In this climate of violence and atrocities, the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) has sought to carry out its mandate of protecting civilians and building peace. However, UNMISS faces immense challenges due to continued fighting, attacks on its personnel and bases, and restrictions by the warring parties. This article examines UN peacekeeping efforts in South Sudan amidst ongoing civil strife. It provides background on the conflict, analyses challenges confronting UNMISS, and evaluates successes and failures in providing security and stability. It concludes with recommendations for enhancing UNMISS’s impact going forward. A review of UNMISS’s rocky seven-year tenure highlights both the importance and difficulties of peacekeeping in active civil war settings.
HISTORY OF CONFLICT IN SOUTH SUDAN:
The conflict in South Sudan, a nation carved out of historical turmoil, is deeply rooted in a past marked by colonial manipulation, ethnic disunity, and political strife. This section aims
to unravel these complex origins to offer a clearer understanding of the persistent conflicts in the region.
Colonial Roots and Ethnic Disparities:
During the colonial period, particularly under British governance, the seeds of many of South Sudan’s current issues were sown. The British adopted an indirect rule approach, which inadvertently deepened ethnic divides by preferentially selecting certain groups for administrative duties. This practice not only widened the ethnic gaps but also resulted in disproportionate development between the northern and southern parts of the region, leaving the south feeling marginalized.
Post-independence, the policies of the successive Sudanese governments did little to mend these rifts. Efforts to impose Islamic laws and Arabize the predominantly Christian and animist south met with resistance, exacerbating the feelings of exclusion and resentment
Civil Wars and Their Impacts:
South Sudan’s history is scarred by two major civil wars. The first (1955-1972) emerged as a reaction to the dominance of the northern Sudanese government and a lack of inclusive political and economic policies. The 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement, which concluded this war, granted some autonomy to the south but failed to address the core issues, leading to its eventual collapse.
The second civil war, ignited in 1983 and more destructive than its predecessor, was fueled by the discovery of oil in the south and a controversial decision by President Gaafar Nimeiry to redivide the southern regions. This conflict saw the rise of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) as a key opposition force, setting the stage for prolonged violence and displacement.
Path to Independence:
The protracted conflicts eventually led to the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005, ending the second civil war and setting the stage for South Sudan’s independence. A referendum held in 2011 overwhelmingly supported secession, leading to the birth of South Sudan as an independent nation in July of that year.
Challenges of a New Nation:
However, independence did not translate into peace for South Sudan. The young country struggled with unresolved ethnic tensions, poor infrastructure, and weak political structures. A significant political rift, particularly between President Salva Kiir and his deputy Riek Machar, sparked a new civil war in December 2013, plunging the country into further chaos.
This historical account underscores that South Sudan’s conflict is the result of deep-seated historical grievances and disputes, not just issues arising post-independence. Understanding this backdrop is vital to grasp the ongoing conflict dynamics in South Sudan and the intricacies involved in the peacekeeping efforts there.
ESTABLISHMENT AND MANDATE OF UNMISS:
The establishment of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) in 2011 marked a significant international effort to stabilize the world’s youngest nation. This decision was made under the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1996, reflecting the global community’s commitment to assisting South Sudan in its transition to peace and stability after gaining independence.
The inception of UNMISS can be traced back to the immediate aftermath of South Sudan’s declaration of independence from Sudan on July 9, 2011. Recognizing the fragile state of the new nation, the United Nations Security Council swiftly acted to establish a peacekeeping mission. Resolution 1996, adopted on July 8, 2011, officially created UNMISS with the primary goal of supporting the newly formed Republic of South Sudan.
The initial mandate of UNMISS was broad and multifaceted, reflecting the complex challenges faced by South Sudan. The core objectives of the mission included:
1.Supporting Peace and Security: UNMISS was tasked with supporting the government in peace consolidation efforts, conflict prevention, and ensuring a secure environment for the populace. This included assisting in disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration processes, as well as security sector reform.
- Facilitating Development: Another critical aspect of UNMISS’s mandate was to aid South Sudan in creating conditions conducive to development. This encompassed a wide range of activities, from rebuilding infrastructure to promoting good governance and rule of law.
- Humanitarian Assistance: Given the significant humanitarian needs in South Sudan, UNMISS was also mandated to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid and support the capacity-building of local humanitarian actors.
- Human Rights Protection: A key component of the mission’s mandate was the protection of human rights. This included monitoring, investigating, and reporting on human rights violations, with a particular focus on vulnerable groups.
- Supporting the Implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA): UNMISS was expected to play a role in ensuring that the CPA’s provisions, particularly those relating to the final status of Abyei and border demarcation, were implemented effectively.
Evolution of the Mandate:
Over time, the mandate of UNMISS has evolved in response to the changing political and security landscape in South Sudan. Following the outbreak of civil war in December 2013, the mission’s focus shifted significantly towards the protection of civilians, monitoring and reporting on human rights, and supporting the delivery of humanitarian assistance. The evolving mandate underscored the mission’s flexibility and responsiveness to the needs of South Sudan. The establishment of UNMISS and its evolving mandate represent the international community’s ongoing efforts to foster a stable, peaceful, and prosperous South Sudan. The mission’s role and activities continue to adapt to the dynamic and challenging
environment, striving to achieve its goals amidst the complexities of the nation’s political and social landscape.
UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING EFFORTS IN SOUTH SUDAN:
The deployment of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) embodies a dynamic and strategic approach, crucial in a nation where conflict hotspots rapidly evolve. This multinational peacekeeping force is not just a deterrent against violence but also a crucial factor in providing stability. Its troops, drawn from a variety of countries, bring diverse skills and experiences vital for the multifaceted challenges on the ground. The deployment is characterized by its responsive nature, with troop movements and strategies constantly adapting to the latest developments and intelligence reports.
Central to UNMISS’s mandate is the protection of civilians, a task executed with a blend of tactical acumen and community sensitivity. The establishment of Protection of Civilian (PoC) sites offers more than just refuge; they are beacons of safety and order amidst chaos, providing essential services and a semblance of normal life for thousands. These efforts are complemented by regular patrols and community outreach, fostering a trust-based relationship with local populations, essential for effective peacekeeping.
An integral part of the mission’s strategy is facilitating humanitarian aid. In a terrain marred by conflict, ensuring safe delivery of aid is as critical as it is challenging. UNMISS plays a pivotal role in securing routes for aid delivery, often involving complex negotiations with local factions. Beyond securing these corridors, the UN mission also coordinates with numerous NGOs and international aid agencies, ensuring that logistics are efficiently managed and aid distribution reaches those most in need.
Moreover, UNMISS’s role in promoting political dialogue in South Sudan is a testament to the UN’s commitment to sustainable peace. The mission actively supports and mediates peace talks between conflicting parties, a task that requires not just diplomatic skill but also a nuanced understanding of the region’s political and cultural dynamics. This diplomatic engagement extends beyond the negotiation table, involving persistent dialogue at various levels to build consensus and guide the warring factions towards a political resolution.
In essence, the UN’s peacekeeping strategies in South Sudan represent a comprehensive and multifaceted approach. It melds military presence with humanitarian support, community engagement, and diplomatic mediation, reflecting the complexity and necessity of a holistic approach to peacekeeping in such a volatile and challenging environment.
CHALLENGES FACED BY UNITED NATIONS:
Security Risks for Peacekeepers:
Operating in South Sudan poses significant security risks for United Nations peacekeepers, stemming from both the hostile environment and the challenging terrain.
- Hostile Environments and Attacks: UN personnel often find themselves in the crosshairs of various armed groups. These risks are not just from the battlefield; targeted attacks on UN bases and convoys have been reported. The hostility extends beyond physical violence; it includes psychological threats and the constant stress of operating in a high-risk zone.
- Logistical Challenges Due to Terrain and Geography: South Sudan’s vast, often inaccessible terrain adds another layer of complexity. The logistics of deploying troops and aid, establishing bases, and conducting patrols in such an environment are immensely challenging. Issues like poor road networks, seasonal floods, and vast, uninhabited areas make it difficult to maintain a consistent UN presence and respond swiftly to emerging crises.
LIMITED RESOURCES AND FUNDING:
- Mismatch Between Mission Needs and Resources: A significant challenge facing the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) is the disparity between its extensive objectives and the limited resources available. The mission in South Sudan is tasked with a broad spectrum of responsibilities, ranging from civilian protection to aiding in political processes. Each of these tasks demands considerable investment in terms of financial resources, essential equipment, skilled personnel, and logistical support. However, the resources currently at the mission’s disposal often fall short of what is required to effectively fulfil these wide-ranging and critical objectives.
- Balancing Immediate and Long-Term Needs: A critical challenge is the balance between addressing immediate peacekeeping needs and investing in long-term nation-building and development. The mission’s success is not just measured by its ability to manage current crises but also by its contribution to building a sustainable, peaceful future for South Sudan. This requires resources that are often stretched thin.
POLITICAL INSTABILITY AND LACK OF COOPERATION:
Political dynamics within South Sudan significantly impact the effectiveness of the UN’s peacekeeping efforts.
- Fluctuating Political Alliances and Leadership Issues: The political landscape in South Sudan is characterized by its volatility. Alliances shift, and leadership disputes are frequent, complicating the process of establishing sustainable peace. The fractured nature of political leadership often leads to inconsistent policies and challenges in implementing peace agreements.
- Resistance from Local Factions: Another major challenge is the resistance or outright non-cooperation from various local factions. Some view the UN and its mission with suspicion or as a threat to their power. This resistance can manifest in non-compliance with peace agreements, restrictions on UN movements, or even direct confrontations. Such attitudes severely hamper the UN’s ability to execute its mandate effectively.
IMPACT AND EFFECTIVENESS OF UNITED NATIONS’ PEACEKEEPING EFFORTS:
Reduction of Violence and Protection of Civilians:
- UNMISS has been instrumental in reducing violence in hotspots and protecting civilians in PoC sites.
- The presence of peacekeepers has deterred potential mass atrocities in several instances.
Facilitation of Humanitarian Assistance:
- Improved access to vulnerable populations due to the security provided by UNMISS.
- Coordination with humanitarian agencies has been crucial in addressing the humanitarian crisis.
Promotion of Political Stability and Reconciliation:
- Contributions to the peace process, including the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS) in 2018.
- Efforts in supporting the establishment of a transitional government and national dialogue.
CONCLUSION:
The United Nations’ involvement in South Sudan, particularly through the UNMISS, represents a multifaceted and dynamic approach to peacekeeping in one of the world’s most challenging environments. Since South Sudan’s descent into civil strife in 2013, the UN has played a pivotal role in mitigating the impacts of the conflict, though the journey has been fraught with numerous challenges. The deployment of peacekeeping forces and the establishment of Protection of Civilian sites have been crucial in reducing violence and providing sanctuaries for thousands of civilians. Efforts in facilitating humanitarian aid and promoting political dialogue have, to varying degrees, addressed the immediate needs of the South Sudanese people and laid groundwork for long-term stability. However, the mission has continually grappled with formidable obstacles, including security risks for peacekeepers, limited resources and funding, and the complex political landscape of South Sudan. These challenges underscore the need for a robust, adaptable mandate and a well-resourced mission capable of responding to evolving on-ground realities. The UN’s experience in South Sudan offers valuable lessons for future peacekeeping operations. It highlights the importance of strengthening the mandate and capacity of peacekeeping missions, enhancing collaboration with regional and international partners, and addressing the root causes of conflict. The progress made, despite the challenges, offers hope and direction for addressing similar conflicts globally, emphasizing the need for sustained international engagement,
comprehensive strategies, and a steadfast commitment to the principles of peace and human dignity.
REFERENCES:
This article was originally published on United Nations Peacekeeping. The link for the same is herein. https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/past/unmis/background.shtml
This article was originally published on PRESS RELEASE – SOUTH SUDAN: UN REPORT. The link for the same is herein. https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/press-release-south-sudan-un-report-finds-nearly-600-civilians-were-killed-amid-gross-human-rights
This article was originally published on The Conversation. The link for the same is herein. https://theconversation.com/peacekeeping-in-south-sudan-its-a-race-against-time-for-the-un-182442
This article was originally published on Reliefweb.int The link for the same is herein. http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/B752FF2063E282B08525767100751B90-unocha_protecting_nov2009.pdf
This article was originally published on Humanitarian Practice Network. The link for the same is herein. https://odihpn.org/publication/the-mixed-record-of-un-peacekeeping-in-south-sudan/
This article was originally published on Humanitarian Practice Network. The link for the same is herein. https://www.stimson.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/4-PeaceOps-2020-1245-SouthSudan.pdf